Put Pixel CPP

#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<dos.h>
#include<graphics.h>
void main()
{

 int d=DETECT,m;
 initgraph(&d,&m,"c:\\tc\\bgi");
for(int x=1,y=10;x<=10000;x++)
{
 putpixel(x,y,6);
}
getch();
closegraph();
}

A-Z Index of the Bash command line for Linux.

An A-Z Index of the Bash command line for Linux.

  alias
   Create an alias •

  apropos
 Search Help manual pages (man -k)

  apt-get
 Search for and install software packages (Debian/Ubuntu)

  aptitude
Search for and install software packages (Debian/Ubuntu)

  aspell
  Spell Checker

  awk
     Find and Replace text, database sort/validate/index

b

  basename
Strip directory and suffix from filenames

  bash
    GNU Bourne-Again SHell 

  bc
      Arbitrary precision calculator language 

  bg
      Send to background

  break
   Exit from a loop •

  builtin
 Run a shell builtin

  bzip2
   Compress or decompress named file(s)

c

  cal
     Display a calendar

  case
    Conditionally perform a command

  cat
     Concatenate and print (display) the content of files

  cd
      Change Directory

  cfdisk
  Partition table manipulator for Linux

  chgrp
   Change group ownership

  chmod
   Change access permissions

  chown
   Change file owner and group

  chroot
  Run a command with a different root directory

  chkconfig
System services (runlevel)

  cksum
   Print CRC checksum and byte counts

  clear
   Clear terminal screen

  cmp
     Compare two files

  comm
    Compare two sorted files line by line

  command
 Run a command - ignoring shell functions •

  continue
Resume the next iteration of a loop •

  cp
      Copy one or more files to another location

  cron
    Daemon to execute scheduled commands

  crontab
 Schedule a command to run at a later time

  csplit
  Split a file into context-determined pieces

  cut
     Divide a file into several parts

d

  date
    Display or change the date & time

  dc
      Desk Calculator

  dd
      Convert and copy a file, write disk headers, boot records

  ddrescue
Data recovery tool

  declare
 Declare variables and give them attributes •

  df
      Display free disk space

  diff
    Display the differences between two files

  diff3
   Show differences among three files

  dig
     DNS lookup

  dir
     Briefly list directory contents

  dircolors
Colour setup for `ls'

  dirname
 Convert a full pathname to just a path

  dirs
    Display list of remembered directories

  dmesg
   Print kernel & driver messages 

  du
      Estimate file space usage

e

  echo
    Display message on screen •

  egrep
   Search file(s) for lines that match an extended expression

  eject
   Eject removable media

  enable
  Enable and disable builtin shell commands •

  env
     Environment variables

  ethtool
 Ethernet card settings

  eval
    Evaluate several commands/arguments

  exec
    Execute a command

  exit
    Exit the shell

  expect
  Automate arbitrary applications accessed over a terminal

  expand
  Convert tabs to spaces

  export
  Set an environment variable

  expr
    Evaluate expressions

f

  false
   Do nothing, unsuccessfully

  fdformat
Low-level format a floppy disk

  fdisk
   Partition table manipulator for Linux

  fg
      Send job to foreground 

  fgrep
   Search file(s) for lines that match a fixed string

  file
    Determine file type

  find
    Search for files that meet a desired criteria

  fmt
     Reformat paragraph text

  fold
    Wrap text to fit a specified width.

  for
     Expand words,
and execute commands

  format
  Format disks or tapes

  free
    Display memory usage

  fsck
    File system consistency check and repair

  ftp
     File Transfer Protocol

  function
Define Function Macros

  fuser
   Identify/kill the process that is accessing a file

g

  gawk
    Find and Replace text within file(s)

  getopts
 Parse positional parameters

  grep
    Search file(s) for lines that match a given pattern

  groupadd
Add a user security group

  groupdel
Delete a group

  groupmod
Modify a group

  groups
  Print group names a user is in

  gzip
    Compress or decompress named file(s)

h

  hash
    Remember the full pathname of a name argument

  head
    Output the first part of file(s)

  help
    Display help for a built-in command •

  history
 Command History

  hostname
Print or set system name

i

  iconv
   Convert the character set of a file

  id
      Print user and group id's

  if
      Conditionally perform a command

  ifconfig
Configure a network interface

  ifdown
  Stop a network interface 

  ifup
    Start a network interface up

  import
  Capture an X server screen and save the image to file

  install
 Copy files and set attributes

j

  jobs
    List active jobs •

  join
    Join lines on a common field

k

  kill
    Stop a process from running

  killall
 Kill processes by name

l

  less
    Display output one screen at a time

  let
     Perform arithmetic on shell variables •

  link
    Create a link to a file 

  ln
      Create a symbolic link to a file

  local
   Create variables •

  locate
  Find files

  logname
 Print current login name

  logout
  Exit a login shell •

  look
    Display lines beginning with a given string

  lpc
     Line printer control program

  lpr
     Off line print

  lprint
  Print a file

  lprintd
 Abort a print job

  lprintq
 List the print queue

  lprm
    Remove jobs from the print queue

  ls
      List information about file(s)

  lsof
    List open files

m

  make
    Recompile a group of programs

  man
     Help manual

  mkdir
   Create new folder(s)

  mkfifo
  Make FIFOs (named pipes)

  mkisofs
 Create an hybrid ISO9660/JOLIET/HFS filesystem

  mknod
   Make block or character special files

  more
    Display output one screen at a time

  mount
   Mount a file system

  mtools
  Manipulate MS-DOS files

  mtr
     Network diagnostics (traceroute/ping)

  mv
      Move or rename files or directories

  mmv
     Mass Move and rename (files)

n

  netstat
 Networking information

  nice
    Set the priority of a command or job

  nl
      Number lines and write files

  nohup
   Run a command immune to hangups

  notify-send
 Send desktop notifications

  nslookup
Query Internet name servers interactively

o

  open
    Open a file in its default application

  op
      Operator access 

p

  passwd
  Modify a user password

  paste
   Merge lines of files

  pathchk
 Check file name portability

  ping
    Test a network connection

  pkill
   Stop processes from running

  popd
    Restore the previous value of the current directory

  pr
      Prepare files for printing

  printcap
Printer capability database

  printenv
Print environment variables

  printf
  Format and print data •

  ps
      Process status

  pushd
   Save and then change the current directory

  pv
      Monitor the progress of data through a pipe 

  pwd
     Print Working Directory

q

  quota
   Display disk usage and limits

  quotacheck
Scan a file system for disk usage

  quotactl
Set disk quotas

r

  ram
     ram disk device

  rcp
     Copy files between two machines

  read
    Read a line from standard input •

  readarray
Read from stdin into an array variable •

  readonly
Mark variables/functions as readonly

  reboot
  Reboot the system

  rename
  Rename files

  renice
  Alter priority of running processes 

  remsync
 Synchronize remote files via email

  return
  Exit a shell function

  rev
     Reverse lines of a file

  rm
      Remove files

  rmdir
   Remove folder(s)

  rsync
   Remote file copy (Synchronize file trees)

s

  screen
  Multiplex terminal, run remote shells via ssh

  scp
     Secure copy (remote file copy)

  sdiff
   Merge two files interactively

  sed
     Stream Editor

  select
  Accept keyboard input

  seq
     Print numeric sequences

  set
     Manipulate shell variables and functions

  sftp
    Secure File Transfer Program

  shift
   Shift positional parameters

  shopt
   Shell Options

  shutdown
Shutdown or restart linux

  sleep
   Delay for a specified time

  slocate
 Find files

  sort
    Sort text files

  source
  Run commands from a file '.'

  split
   Split a file into fixed-size pieces

  ssh
     Secure Shell client (remote login program)

  strace
  Trace system calls and signals

  su
      Substitute user identity

  sudo
    Execute a command as another user

  sum
     Print a checksum for a file

  suspend
 Suspend execution of this shell •

  sync
    Synchronize data on disk with memory

t

  tail
    Output the last part of file

  tar
     Store, list or extract files in an archive

  tee
     Redirect output to multiple files

  test
    Evaluate a conditional expression

  time
    Measure Program running time

  timeout
 Run a command with a time limit

  times
   User and system times

  touch
   Change file timestamps

  top
     List processes running on the system

  traceroute
Trace Route to Host

  trap
    Run a command when a signal is set(bourne)

  tr
      Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters

  true
    Do nothing, successfully

  tsort
   Topological sort

  tty
     Print filename of terminal on stdin

  type
    Describe a command •

u

  ulimit
  Limit user resources •

  umask
   Users file creation mask

  umount
  Unmount a device

  unalias
 Remove an alias •

  uname
   Print system information

  unexpand
Convert spaces to tabs

  uniq
    Uniquify files

  units
   Convert units from one scale to another

  unset
   Remove variable or function names

  unshar
  Unpack shell archive scripts

  until
   Execute commands (until error)

  uptime
  Show uptime

  useradd
 Create new user account

  userdel
 Delete a user account

  usermod
 Modify user account

  users
   List users currently logged in

  uuencode
Encode a binary file 

  uudecode
Decode a file created by uuencode

v

  v
       Verbosely list directory contents (`ls -l -b')

  vdir
    Verbosely list directory contents (`ls -l -b')

  vi
      Text Editor

  vmstat
  Report virtual memory statistics

w

  wait
    Wait for a process to complete •

  watch
   Execute/display a program periodically

  wc
      Print byte, word, and line counts

  whereis
 Search the user's $path, man pages and source files for a program

  which
   Search the user's $path for a program file

  while
   Execute commands

  who
     Print all usernames currently logged in

  whoami
  Print the current user id and name (`id -un')

  wget
    Retrieve web pages or files via HTTP, HTTPS or FTP

  write
   Send a message to another user 

x

  xargs
   Execute utility, passing constructed argument list(s)

  xdg-open
Open a file or URL in the user's preferred application.

  yes
     Print a string until interrupted

  zip
     Package and compress (archive) files.

  .
       Run a command script in the current shell

  !!
      Run the last command again

  ###     Comment / Remark

OST Assignment 1

1. Compare Open source software and Paid License Software .

Ans. 1. Open source is developed by people who have access to the source code. In fact users who know how can read it and develop either plugins or patches which solve problems the original might have, and in fact it could be incorporated into later versions of the original. 1. License software is often written by people with only limited access to the code they will run on. Microsoft especially protects its source code from many people who develop for their os. This leads to inherent inefficiencies as people who do License code are often forced by commercial interests to reinvent the wheel. 

2. Open Source code is usually developed to be USEFUL. The projects which succeed address real needs and garbage like Vista's Aero which requires so much computing power was clearly inspired by Linux's Compiz/Fusion which runs on old Dells. I am not a fan of Compiz/Fusion but its success in the Linux community went far beyond what people think of as the Linux community if they are not a part of it. 2. License software is generally designed from the perspective of what will appeal to consumers. Thus loved programs will be discontinued while programs which serve no useful purpose (WGA) will be pushed heavily. 

3. Open source is not always free but it usually is available free -- not as a trial -- in one form or another because the code will be released that way. License software costs more and usually has a shorter support schedule.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Software development mode.

Ans. The development models are the various processes or methodologies that are being selected for the development of the project depending on the project’s aims and goals. There are many development life cycle models that have been developed in order to achieve different required objectives. The models specify the various stages of the process and the order in which they are carried out.

The selection of model has very high impact on the testing that is carried out. It will define the what, where and when of our planned testing, influence regression testing and largely determines which test techniques to use.

There are various Software development models or methodologies. They are as follows:

1. Waterfall model
2. V model
3. Incremental model
4. RAD model
5. Agile model
6. Iterative model
7. Spiral model

Choosing right model for developing of the software product or application is very important. Based on the model the development and testing processes are carried out.

Different companies based on the software application or product, they select the type of development model whichever suits to their application. But these days in market the ‘Agile Methodology’ is the most used model. ‘Waterfall Model’ is the very old model. In ‘Waterfall Model’ testing starts only after the development is completed. Because of which there are many defects and failures which are reported at the end. So,the cost of fixing these issues are high. Hence, these days people are preferring ‘Agile Model’. In ‘Agile Model’ after every sprint there is a demo-able feature to the customer. Hence customer can see the features whether they are satisfying their need or not.

‘V-model’ is also used by many of the companies in their product. ‘V-model’ is nothing but ‘Verification’ and ‘Validation’ model. In ‘V-model’ the developer’s life cycle and tester’s life cycle are mapped to each other. In this model testing is done side by side of the development.

Likewise ‘Incremental model’, ‘RAD model’, ‘Iterative model’ and ‘Spiral model’ are also used based on the requirement of the customer and need of the product.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Describe 5 linux distributors

Ans. 

1: Mint Linux:

 Linux Mint is a 32- and 64-bit Linux distribution for desktop computers, based on either Ubuntu or Debian. Its stated aim is to be a "modern, elegant and comfortable operating system which is both powerful and easy to use." Mint provides full out-of-the-box multimedia support by including some proprietary software such as Adobe Flash. Mint's motto is "from freedom came elegance".

2: Mageia: 

Mageia is a Linux computer operating system, distributed as free and open source software. It is forked from the Mandriva Linux distribution.

The first release of the software distribution, Mageia 1, took place in June 2011

3: Ubuntu: 
Ubuntu is a Debian-based Linux operating system, with Unity as its default desktop environment (GNOME was the previous desktop environment). It is based on free software and named after the Southern African philosophy of ubuntu (literally, "human-ness"), which often is translated as "humanity towards others" or "the belief in a universal bond of sharing that connects all humanity

4: Fedora:

Fedora  is an operating system based on the Linux kernel, developed by the community-supported Fedora Project and owned by Red Hat. Fedora contains software distributed under a free and open source license and aims to be on the leading edge of such technologies


Linus Torvalds, author of the Linux kernel, uses Fedora on all his computers.

5: Debian:

Debian is an operating system composed of free software mostly carrying the GNU General Public License, and developed by an Internet collaboration of volunteers aligned with the Debian Project. It is one of the most popular Linux distributions for personal computers and network servers, and has been used as a base for other Linux distributions.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. Why Linux Is More Secure Than Windows?

Ans. 
1. Privileges

Linux systems are by no means infallible, but one of their key advantages lies in the way account privileges are assigned. In Windows, users are generally given administrator access by default, which means they pretty much have access to everything on the system, even its most crucial parts. So, then, do viruses. It's like giving terrorists high-level government positions.

With Linux, on the other hand, users do not usually have such "root" privileges; rather, they're typically given lower-level accounts. What that means is that even if a Linux system is compromised, the virus won't have the root access it would need to do damage systemwide; more likely, just the user's local files and programs would be affected. That can make the difference between a minor annoyance and a major catastrophe in any business setting.

2. Social Engineering

Viruses and worms often spread by convincing computer users to do something they shouldn't, like open attachments that carry viruses and worms. This is called social engineering, and it's all too easy on Windows systems. Just send out an e-mail with a malicious attachment and a subject line like, "Check out these adorable puppies!"--or the porn equivalent--and some proportion of users is bound to click without thinking. The result? An open door for the attached malware, with potentially disastrous consequences organizationwide.

Thanks to the fact that most Linux users don't have root access, however, it's much harder to accomplish any real damage on a Linux system by getting them to do something foolish. Before any real damage could occur, a Linux user would have to read the e-mail, save the attachment, give it executable permissions and then run the executable. Not very likely, in other words.

3. The Monoculture Effect

However you want to argue the exact numbers, there's no doubt that Microsoft Windows still dominates most of the computing world. In the realm of e-mail, so too do Outlook and Outlook Express. And therein lies a problem: It's essentially a monoculture, which is no better in technology than it is in the natural world. Just as genetic diversity is a good thing in the natural world because it minimizes the deleterious effects of a deadly virus, so a diversity of computing environments helps protect users.

Fortunately, a diversity of environments is yet another benefit that Linux offers. There's Ubuntu, there's Debian, there's Gentoo, and there are many other distributions. There are also many shells, many packaging systems, and many mail clients; Linux even runs on many architectures beyond just Intel. So, whereas a virus can be targeted squarely at Windows users, since they all use pretty much the same technology, reaching more than a small faction of Linux users is much more difficult. Who wouldn't want to give their company that extra layer of assurance?

4. Audience Size

Hand-in-hand with this monoculture effect comes the not particularly surprising fact that the majority of viruses target Windows, and the desktops in your organization are no exception. Millions of people all using the same software make an attractive target for malicious attacks.

5. How Many Eyeballs

"Linus' Law"--named for Linus Torvalds, the creator of Linux--holds that, "given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow." What that means is that the larger the group of developers and testers working on a set of code, the more likely any flaws will be caught and fixed quickly. This, in other words, is essentially the polar opposite of the "security through obscurity" argument.

With Windows, it's a limited set of paid developers who are trying to find problems in the code. They adhere to their own set timetables, and they don't generally tell anyone about the problems until they've already created a solution, leaving the door open to exploits until that happens. Not a very comforting thought for the businesses that depend on that technology.

In the Linux world, on the other hand, countless users can see the code at any time, making it more likely that someone will find a flaw sooner rather than later. Not only that, but users can even fix problems themselves. Microsoft may tout its large team of paid developers, but it's unlikely that team can compare with a global base of Linux user-developers around the globe. Security can only benefit through all those extra "eyeballs."

Once again, none of this is to say that Linux is impervious; no operating system is. And there are definitely steps Linux users should take to make their systems as secure as possible, such as enabling a firewall, minimizing the use of root privileges, and keeping the system up to date. For extra peace of mind there are also virus scanners available for Linux, including ClamAV. These are particularly good measures for small businesses, which likely have more at stake than individual users do.

It's also worth noting that security firm Secunia recently declared that Apple products have more security vulnerabilities than any others--including Microsoft's.


Either way, however, when it comes to security, there's no doubt that Linux users have a lot less to worry about.